Not surprisingly, the science of nuclear physics has been extremely politicized from its first discovery. Having the ability to create seemingly endless amounts of electric power, and also to completely destroy any target almost instantly, is something that any state would want to possess. This is why from the earliest theorizing about nuclear reactions, world superpowers have dominated the progress and evolution of nuclear physics.
From the earliest stages of World War II, the potential advantages of nuclear weapons were clear. In a long violent war which consumed massive amounts of lives and resources, having a weapon as decisive as a nuclear bomb could bring about the end of the war almost immediately. Both sides were very aware of this possibility, and it weighed heavily in their pursuit of nuclear technology. In perhaps the most stark political statement in history, the American atomic bomb was first unleashed in Japan, bringing a swift end to World War II. With this action, the United States sent a clear message to the world indicating their political and technological supremacy.
The nuclear arms race that this statement created is even further testament to the political power of nuclear weapons. This political power of nuclear weapons in fact exceeded their actual destructive power, as soon the use of such weapons became impossible. Nuclear weapons became strictly a deterrent, whose sole purpose was to guarantee the security of the nations who possessed them. The thought of actually using the weapons was ridiculous, since nuclear was would almost certainly mean the end of mankind. So in conclusion, the most destructive weapon ever devised by man was reduced to an incredibly expensive political bargaining chip, and thankfully never were deployed.
Thursday, November 15, 2007
The Political Einstein
While Einstein is obviously primarily known for his work in physics, his extensive achievements and celebrity-like status granted him considerable exposure in the political world as well. Known for having one of the most brilliant minds of all time, Einstein was often cited or called upon in other non-scientific forums, as having him as a political ally could drastically aid ones cause. Because of his high level of acclaim, Einstein was able to speak on almost any topic that interested him, and in any manner he wished. This was a privelege which was not granted to most public figures at the time. In Nazi Germany, the pervasive nationalism which ruled the country targeted controversial figures like Einstein, who did not cater to any individual state, but rather to his own personal ideals.
This aspect of his political stance mirrored that of his stance in physics. In the physics world, Einstein had always pursued his own scientific agenda, even if it was in conflict with classical physics or even the state. This was why he was so liked in the liberal world. As a leading figure in the cultural Zionist movement, Einstein was always on the cutting edge of social issues. However this also got him into some considerabletrouble in the United States as well. As McCarthyism was in full swing in America, such radical ideas could easily make the wrong impression on the wrong people and attract a barrage of anti-communist attacks. Since Einstein had contributed so much to Western science, he managed to escape most of the anti-communist propaganda which dominated the early stages ofthe cold war.
Very few historical figures have had as much of an impact on world affairs as Albert Einstein, as his contributions changed the face of science and of cultural affairs. His desire to find the harmony that he believed existed in the natural world led him to many great achievements in physics and in politics, which is why he is a quintessential figure in the subject of this class.
This aspect of his political stance mirrored that of his stance in physics. In the physics world, Einstein had always pursued his own scientific agenda, even if it was in conflict with classical physics or even the state. This was why he was so liked in the liberal world. As a leading figure in the cultural Zionist movement, Einstein was always on the cutting edge of social issues. However this also got him into some considerabletrouble in the United States as well. As McCarthyism was in full swing in America, such radical ideas could easily make the wrong impression on the wrong people and attract a barrage of anti-communist attacks. Since Einstein had contributed so much to Western science, he managed to escape most of the anti-communist propaganda which dominated the early stages ofthe cold war.
Very few historical figures have had as much of an impact on world affairs as Albert Einstein, as his contributions changed the face of science and of cultural affairs. His desire to find the harmony that he believed existed in the natural world led him to many great achievements in physics and in politics, which is why he is a quintessential figure in the subject of this class.
Wednesday, November 14, 2007
Atoms for Peace
In his speach "Atoms for Peace," President Eisenhower gives us insight into the political struggle that is the nuclear arms race. With the seemingly inevitable process of proliferation in full swing, many people became certain that mankind would soon terminate itself from existence if serious changes were not made. President Eisenhower's speech did an excellent job in fully outlining the total destructive capabilities of the world's nuclear arsenal. After a truly terrible war in Europe, Eisenhowers comment about how a single atomic weapon is more powerful than all of the bombs and guns of World War II combined shed light on just how devastating nuclear war would be if it were to ever happen. He explains that the problem is not one of nation vs. nation, but rather that it affects all mankind, as nuclear war would almost certainly mean the end of life on Earth.
His attempt to unify both East and West however would ultimately be in vain, as the fear of a militarily superior enemy overshadowed the desire for an atomic truce. The nuclear arms race seemed to be an inescapable problem which could not be avoided as long as the two combating sides both were in existence. It seemed that the only feasible way to avoid nuclear war would be through mutually assured destruction of the world, a prospect which neither side wanted.
His attempt to unify both East and West however would ultimately be in vain, as the fear of a militarily superior enemy overshadowed the desire for an atomic truce. The nuclear arms race seemed to be an inescapable problem which could not be avoided as long as the two combating sides both were in existence. It seemed that the only feasible way to avoid nuclear war would be through mutually assured destruction of the world, a prospect which neither side wanted.
The Race for Space
Separate from the nuclear arms race, but just as important, was the race to put a man in space. While both Soviets and Americans had demonstrated their ability to build massive atomic weapons, the question still remained as to what was the best system of delivery. ICBM's seemed to be the most feasible at the time, but of course there was always the need to take the next step and to further demonstrate technological and military superiority. The United States and the Soviet Union both felt that the next step should be space exploration. By sending ordinances into space, one can accomplish two feats to display technological and military dominance. First, if you have the capacity to lauch satellites and vehicles into space, then you also have the ability to lauch missiles across the globe. This has obvious implications for the arms race as it shows that you are never safe from atomic weapons no matter how far away you may be. The second advantage of establishing a presence in space is that you are able to store a nuclear arsenal in orbit which could also be used to attack any point on Earth.
It is strange that when we speak about the race for space, very little of the conversation seems to pertain to scientific advancement. Instead the clear priority for both sides was military and political posturing. Whoever established themself in space would demonstrate their technological superiority and their ability to destroy the enemy in a faster, more unexpected fashion. This is why the perception of a nation's accomplishment in space was far more important than the actual accomplishments themselves. This explains why Kennedy was so willing to dump massive amounts of funding into a project that theoretically would not bring much in actual tangible returns.
It is strange that when we speak about the race for space, very little of the conversation seems to pertain to scientific advancement. Instead the clear priority for both sides was military and political posturing. Whoever established themself in space would demonstrate their technological superiority and their ability to destroy the enemy in a faster, more unexpected fashion. This is why the perception of a nation's accomplishment in space was far more important than the actual accomplishments themselves. This explains why Kennedy was so willing to dump massive amounts of funding into a project that theoretically would not bring much in actual tangible returns.
The Hydrogen Bomb and Nuclear Proliferation
With the bombing of Nagasaki and Hiroshima, the full potential of nuclear weapons became horrifyingly clear. No longer were these weapons strictly a theoretical idea, but rather they had now become all too real and all too powerful. With wanton destruction on such a massive scale, the morality of nuclear weapons and the role that they should play in international politics became the prime focus of the world's superpowers.The original debate of whether or not nuclear weapons should even be pursued now expanded into whether or not they should be continued and refined.
As research in nuclear science continued to progress, it became clear that the bombs used in Japan were only the tip of the nuclear iceberg, and that it was feasible to create bombs that were hundreds of times more powerful and more deadly. These discoveries fueled a new debate which was not dissimilar from the previous debate about nuclear weapons. The original motives of the United States during World War II were based on the fear that if such weapons are logistically possible, then someone will build them. If someone is going to build them, we need to make sure that it is us and our allies who build them first in order to ensure that other aggressive superpowers do not acquire them first. This idea is the root of all arms races, and it is what drove the nuclear proliferation machine of the cold war. This inescapable problem has been, and will be true, of every technological breakthrough in military science in history. When there is a more efficient method of killing and destroying your enemy, you are obligated to develop the means to do so. Otherwise you leave yourself vulnerable to the exact same problem.
Teller was all too aware of this inevitable step towards the hydrogen bomb from the earliest stages of its research and development. He knew that if such a weapon was possible, then it would most certainly be built. This attitude however did not pervade thoughout the science community, as there were several who objected to the development of the hydrogen bomb. However most of the objections were of moral basis, and did not quell any fears that a Soviet H-bomb might be built. Therefore as expected, President Truman pushed the project along to ensure that the United States would not be outgunned. He knew that the arms race would force the Soviets to build their own as well, since there was no legitimate form of regulation which would deter them. "“I have directed the Atomic Energy Commission to continue its work on all forms of atomic weapons, including the so-called hydrogen or superbomb Like all other work in the field of atomic weapons, it is being carried forward on a basis consistent with the overall objectives of our program for peace and security. This we shall continue to do until a satisfactory plan for international control of atomic energy is achieved.” The last line of this quote by President Truman is the most telling, and shows why the arms race became so large. Since there was no means of preventing the enemy from constructing these weapons, Truman decided that he was obligated to construct them as well in the interests of peace and national security.
While it may sound absolutely ludicrous to suggest that a weapon capable of killing millions of people and destroying entire cities could somehow be used as a tool for peace, Truman was ultimately correct in his decision. With both sides possessing these devastating weapons, the reality of mutually assured destruction was the only way to ensure that they would never be used. If the Soviets and the Americans were deadlocked in the nuclear arms race, then neither side could actually deploy nuclear weapons without accepting their own demise as well.
As research in nuclear science continued to progress, it became clear that the bombs used in Japan were only the tip of the nuclear iceberg, and that it was feasible to create bombs that were hundreds of times more powerful and more deadly. These discoveries fueled a new debate which was not dissimilar from the previous debate about nuclear weapons. The original motives of the United States during World War II were based on the fear that if such weapons are logistically possible, then someone will build them. If someone is going to build them, we need to make sure that it is us and our allies who build them first in order to ensure that other aggressive superpowers do not acquire them first. This idea is the root of all arms races, and it is what drove the nuclear proliferation machine of the cold war. This inescapable problem has been, and will be true, of every technological breakthrough in military science in history. When there is a more efficient method of killing and destroying your enemy, you are obligated to develop the means to do so. Otherwise you leave yourself vulnerable to the exact same problem.
Teller was all too aware of this inevitable step towards the hydrogen bomb from the earliest stages of its research and development. He knew that if such a weapon was possible, then it would most certainly be built. This attitude however did not pervade thoughout the science community, as there were several who objected to the development of the hydrogen bomb. However most of the objections were of moral basis, and did not quell any fears that a Soviet H-bomb might be built. Therefore as expected, President Truman pushed the project along to ensure that the United States would not be outgunned. He knew that the arms race would force the Soviets to build their own as well, since there was no legitimate form of regulation which would deter them. "“I have directed the Atomic Energy Commission to continue its work on all forms of atomic weapons, including the so-called hydrogen or superbomb Like all other work in the field of atomic weapons, it is being carried forward on a basis consistent with the overall objectives of our program for peace and security. This we shall continue to do until a satisfactory plan for international control of atomic energy is achieved.” The last line of this quote by President Truman is the most telling, and shows why the arms race became so large. Since there was no means of preventing the enemy from constructing these weapons, Truman decided that he was obligated to construct them as well in the interests of peace and national security.
While it may sound absolutely ludicrous to suggest that a weapon capable of killing millions of people and destroying entire cities could somehow be used as a tool for peace, Truman was ultimately correct in his decision. With both sides possessing these devastating weapons, the reality of mutually assured destruction was the only way to ensure that they would never be used. If the Soviets and the Americans were deadlocked in the nuclear arms race, then neither side could actually deploy nuclear weapons without accepting their own demise as well.
The Race for the Bomb
A truly interesting point of view on the history of nuclear physics is that America will forever be remembered for the bomb, while Germany will be remembered for their work towards a functional reactor. While this point of view is not one that you would expect to hear in America, it certainly raises some speculation about the motives of each of the superpowers, and what they ultimately aimed to accomplish with applied nuclear fission technology.
In the early stages of the war when it seemed that German forces would steamroll all of Europe and that the war would not last long at all, Western powers were in desperate need of a decisive way to regain control of the war. Both sides knew that if there was anything that could quickly achieve victory, it was the acquisition of an atomic bomb. The only question of importance was whether or not the bomb could be constructed in time to affect the tide of the war. With German physicicists already well versed in area of nuclear fission, Western powers, especially Roosevelt in the United States, had no choice but to pursue nuclear weapons to ensure that the seemingly unstoppable German force would not acquire and utilize atomic weapons first. It had become clear that Hitler would stop at almost nothing to achieve his ultimate goal, and that he held little value for human life. The prospect of him obtaining nuclear weapons was enough to drive the American nuclear effort into full force. However it turned out that their fears of a German bomb were not as justified as they had thought.
The question of whether or not the bomb could be produced in time remained to be the most important. The answer to this question lay in the different styles of military strategy used by each side. The German war efforts were based around their rapid form of "lightning war," which employed speed tactics to wipe out the enemy before they knew what had hit them. The desired goal of these tactics was a quick war which kept the enemies on their heels. The Germans were aware that this strategy would lead to a quick war, win or lose. Therefore it became clear to German leaders that diverting massive amounts of resources away from the immediate war effort and into nuclear projects would be foolish and contrary to their military strategy. This is what ultimately derailed the German bomb, as it did not suit their ideal plan for the war.
So in hindsight the American motives for constructing the atomic bomb were unfounded since in reality the Germans were incapable of producing one in time to affect the outcome of the war. Their fears of a nuclear-Germany had driven them to construct the most powerful weapon man is capable of producing. So while it may be absurd to suggest that Germany will be remembered for their work on a reactor, since it is now clear that they had not aggresively pursued applied nuclear physics at all, it is fair to say that the Americans will forever be known for the bomb. Whether or not this is a good thing or a bad thing is a completely different debate. Had the Americans not developed the bomb, another more aggressive superpower such as the Soviet Union could have done so first, and nuclear weapons may have fallen into the hands of those who would be more inclined to use them on a large scale.
In the early stages of the war when it seemed that German forces would steamroll all of Europe and that the war would not last long at all, Western powers were in desperate need of a decisive way to regain control of the war. Both sides knew that if there was anything that could quickly achieve victory, it was the acquisition of an atomic bomb. The only question of importance was whether or not the bomb could be constructed in time to affect the tide of the war. With German physicicists already well versed in area of nuclear fission, Western powers, especially Roosevelt in the United States, had no choice but to pursue nuclear weapons to ensure that the seemingly unstoppable German force would not acquire and utilize atomic weapons first. It had become clear that Hitler would stop at almost nothing to achieve his ultimate goal, and that he held little value for human life. The prospect of him obtaining nuclear weapons was enough to drive the American nuclear effort into full force. However it turned out that their fears of a German bomb were not as justified as they had thought.
The question of whether or not the bomb could be produced in time remained to be the most important. The answer to this question lay in the different styles of military strategy used by each side. The German war efforts were based around their rapid form of "lightning war," which employed speed tactics to wipe out the enemy before they knew what had hit them. The desired goal of these tactics was a quick war which kept the enemies on their heels. The Germans were aware that this strategy would lead to a quick war, win or lose. Therefore it became clear to German leaders that diverting massive amounts of resources away from the immediate war effort and into nuclear projects would be foolish and contrary to their military strategy. This is what ultimately derailed the German bomb, as it did not suit their ideal plan for the war.
So in hindsight the American motives for constructing the atomic bomb were unfounded since in reality the Germans were incapable of producing one in time to affect the outcome of the war. Their fears of a nuclear-Germany had driven them to construct the most powerful weapon man is capable of producing. So while it may be absurd to suggest that Germany will be remembered for their work on a reactor, since it is now clear that they had not aggresively pursued applied nuclear physics at all, it is fair to say that the Americans will forever be known for the bomb. Whether or not this is a good thing or a bad thing is a completely different debate. Had the Americans not developed the bomb, another more aggressive superpower such as the Soviet Union could have done so first, and nuclear weapons may have fallen into the hands of those who would be more inclined to use them on a large scale.
Wednesday, October 10, 2007
Heisenberg the Nazi
When Heisenberg put forth his model of different types of ways that one can resist a regime like the Nazis, I couldn't help but roll my eyes a little. It seemed to me like this was a feeble attempt to exculpate himself after years of service to one of the most despicable political parties ever known. By making vague claims about the differences between active and passive resistance, Heisenberg had hoped to downplay his involvement after the collapse of the Nazi party, but such an attempt would be in vain. While I do agree with him that passive resistance in many situations accomplishes about as much as no resistance at all, he fails to recognize other methods of active resistance which would not have required him to assist the Nazis in their quest for world domination.
The truth of the matter is that German scientists, including Heisenberg, all had the option of leaving Germany to assist the Allied powers in stopping the Nazis, as many highly respected scientists eventually did. These scientists all made great contributions to the Allied efforts, which in turn directly hampered the Nazi party. This is an example of true active resistance. Heisenberg on the other hand, chose not only to continue working with the Nazis, but also to assist them in their efforts to acquire the most devastating weapon mankind is capable of producing. Despite his blatantly "ex post facto" claims to Bohr that all along he had been subversivly trying to derail the Nazi atomic bomb project, Heisenberg was constantly making large strides in the area of nuclear physics in hopes of initiating a large nuclear reaction. This research went directly into the hands of the Nazi party. While he may have claimed that his true interests were in harnessing nuclear energy for non-weapon uses, it is now known that Heisenberg had met several times with high-ranking Nazi officials to discuss the progress on atomic weapons. The onle reason that his work eventually fell short was because the tides of the war changed and resources for the project ran out. Otherwise Heisenberg showed no signs of stopping his work on manipulating a nuclear reaction. The most essential fact of the matter is that Heisenberg contributed many years of work to a regime responsible for the deaths of millions, and had his work continued, perhaps there would have been millions more.
The truth of the matter is that German scientists, including Heisenberg, all had the option of leaving Germany to assist the Allied powers in stopping the Nazis, as many highly respected scientists eventually did. These scientists all made great contributions to the Allied efforts, which in turn directly hampered the Nazi party. This is an example of true active resistance. Heisenberg on the other hand, chose not only to continue working with the Nazis, but also to assist them in their efforts to acquire the most devastating weapon mankind is capable of producing. Despite his blatantly "ex post facto" claims to Bohr that all along he had been subversivly trying to derail the Nazi atomic bomb project, Heisenberg was constantly making large strides in the area of nuclear physics in hopes of initiating a large nuclear reaction. This research went directly into the hands of the Nazi party. While he may have claimed that his true interests were in harnessing nuclear energy for non-weapon uses, it is now known that Heisenberg had met several times with high-ranking Nazi officials to discuss the progress on atomic weapons. The onle reason that his work eventually fell short was because the tides of the war changed and resources for the project ran out. Otherwise Heisenberg showed no signs of stopping his work on manipulating a nuclear reaction. The most essential fact of the matter is that Heisenberg contributed many years of work to a regime responsible for the deaths of millions, and had his work continued, perhaps there would have been millions more.
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